Appreciation of Chinese Traditional Music from a Western Perspective

In these days of increasing communication between our two perspectives, and the enormous social implications of these exchanges, music has become the most important ambassador between our cultures. Music holds the keys to the most effective cultural exchange and mutual understanding, since it truly is the universal language. It can help us to overcome our bias and dislike for one another, and replace them with feelings of beauty and appreciation readily available through the experience of listening. Understanding music’s functions within both cultures, its background philosophy, its theory, and its meaning as a representative outside of its native culture, has become an essential area of cross-cultural study for musicians and language learners on both sides of the Pacific.

Moving on to the subject material, I would first like to ask you all a few questions. What do you think is the biggest difference between Chinese and Western culture? What are the similarities between the history and philosophy of our respective cultures? Although it is not a commonly touted point, I believe that there are far more similarities between East and West than there are difference. And, while you may find it easier to point out the difference between the two traditions, my thesis is that the essence between the two streams of art and culture does not rely on their views of idealism or perfection, but on their views of the practice and institutionalization of imperfection.

Perfection and Imperfection

The mystery begins with the overtone series, and the reason why each scale has five whole steps and two half steps. There is not a good explanation for this fundamental, mathematical equation, but every thinking culture has had to grapple with the question and ask why this is so. Every culture has also had to cope with the fact that music exhibits an incredible ability to control man’s mind, his emotions, and exert a force of expression and awe upon the listener.  How cultures have dealt with this point, and justified their philosophy within music theory and science, molded them into the particular artistic traditions that they have become.

To take a piece of string and tie it tightly between two points is to construct the foundational piece of equipment from which the mathematical theory of music was devised. If you divide the string in two pieces, the same length, each half will vibrate an octave above the original note, if the same amount of tension is procured as on the first string. So on and so forth, as you ascend octave after octave. The overtones of any given note provide a forth and a fifth above the fundamental tone that are easily distinguished. When these notes are established and another set of strings are tuned to them, they ring out another set of notes in their overtones, which continues the process, until you have a full scale, albeit divided by numerous octaves. Once all of the notes are tuned to this scale, above and below the original notes heard in the overtone series, a problem arises that takes its name from the Greek philosopher, Pythagoras. This problem is that the whole scale will not match up perfectly as it continues up the octave, reaching a point where it is no longer in tune. This effect is called the Pythagorean Coma. Thus, the scale must be tuned to itself, instead of tuned mathematically, resulting in a temperament system. All modes of music have their basis in this process.

Ancient music theory realized that the half tones of “Fa” and “Ti” (4th and 5th scale degrees) unbalanced the natural prevalent pattern of whole steps that occurred in their scale. We find that in all the oldest examples of music, this question was addressed through the elimination of these scale positions, resulting in a pentatonic (five-note) theory and scale. Extant illustrations of Chinese, Egyptian, and Irish music, for example, are all reliant entirely upon a five note scale and a perception of unison harmony.

The Western View

Doctrine of Affections

“There’s sure no passion in the human soul, but finds its food in music”

– Geo. Lillo (1693-1739)

The belief that a composition needed to establish and maintain a singular emotion (affection) was the teaching that received the greatest credence during the Baroque period. There was another aspect of this teaching, which was based on elaborate systems in which to determine the mood of the composition based on its marriage to a work of literature or poetry. This Doctrine of Affection (joy, anger, love, hate, fear, exaltation – all thought to fall under the heading of “affections”, categorized by ethos or pathos) was an idea birthed in the Greek Golden Age and brought back by the Renaissance.

The repetitious nature of the Renaissance and Baroque period music was mostly due to this doctrine, which insisted that the feeling of an emotion was stated in the first melodic motif of a composition, and then constantly restated to retain the specific mood. This practice ensured that one emotion was present throughout the duration of the piece, and that it functioned as an objective observer of the emotion, rather than confusing many different emotions in the context of a single work. Through this idea, it became the standard form to repeat the same idea over and over with slight variations for interest, and the development of modulation to give it added texture and flavor.

Although a simple teaching, this idea gave so much of the characteristic form to Baroque music that, without out it, a remotely similar sound would have not been achieved. The big difference between Baroque and Classical was that the former applied the doctrine strictly (as a formative concept) along with counterpoint, while the latter only kept the principles, without any real concern for adherence to the “one emotion per” idea. The Romantic period totally broke with this concept, by creating music of mixed emotions, which they believed communicates the human condition more effectively.

Instead of focusing on expression, music focused on depiction. The doctrine was contingent on the fact that a “pure emotion” (Ethos) was to be portrayed through music, not the emotional state of the man composing (or Pathos). Thus, the effect of the emotion presented could work in each man differently, rather than representing a prepackaged emotional state. Abstract as it may sound, the difference lies within the intent. The composers of this time were concerned in communicating the principles of reality, rather than communicating their own views of reality. Although this may sound elementary, the difference between the concept of music now compared to then is staggering. Music’s primary goal today is to communicate individualism, which makes it impossible to paint an objective picture of an emotion. The way in which the Baroque composers used the Doctrine of Affections was through carefully balanced ratios in the form of their music. They also succeeded in creating the desired effects through formulas of major and minor tonality, modulation, dissonance, and rhythm. Although not much was written about these principles at that time, they were the major tenants of composers of this period. They were taught through apprenticeship and word of mouth, and this became the basis for understanding their music as a whole.

A discernable pulsation created a feeling of life that music had lacked before. Since life in the literal sense is discerned through pulsation, music was given an artificial form of life by generating pulses in its tone, more than ever before. Throughout every period you see the development and expansion of rhythm. At first music focused on the tone alone, without any real feeling of pulse. Because pulse in so typical of the human body, each successive generation superimposed more aspects of humanity on their music, dividing tone up into pulses that imitated the physical reaction that took place in the body in different situations. Because emotion and physical condition are so closely linked, styles quickly arose from the rhythmic patterns that imitated the physical conditions certain cultures were built around (such as dances and tender love songs). Each rhythm generally suggests one response to a listener. A response that is not appropriate to a culture’s sense of identity will be excluded, and this keeps certain rhythms from entering the music scene until the culture’s philosophy had changed enough to be compatible. The Baroque feel was quite different from the renaissance for the mere fact that philosophy had changed enough to allow fast rhythms to be used.

“… But music for a time doth change his nature. The man that hath no music in himself, nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, is fit for treason, stratagems, and spoils; the motions of his spirit are dull as night, and his affections dark as Erebus; Let no such man be trusted….” (William Shakespeare’s, The Merchant of Venice)

“Music alone with sudden charms can bind the wandering sense, and calm the troubled mind” – Hymn to Harmony, William Congreve (1670-1729)

“Music hath the power to sooth the savage breast, To soften rock, or bend the knotted Oak.” – The Mourning Bride, William Congreve (1670-1729)

Summary of the Western Philosophy of Music

  • The Doctrine of Affections – The Responsibility to Balance the Powers of Music According to the Pathos and Ethos of man
  • The Revelation of Principle – Music as an Influence on Man’s Character and the Evidence of Natural Order within the Universe
  • The Meaning of Music – Art as a Practical Philosophy to Induce and Balance the Temperaments of the Mind and the Character of Human Relationships
  • Striving for the Unattainable Perfection – Music Seen as the Ultimate, Universal, and Divine Communication
  • The Lifestyle of Aesthetics – Living for a Philosophical Purpose in Art

The Chinese View

The Chinese Doctrine of Appropriate Music

“Confucius Said: ‘Virtue is the strong stem of man’s nature, and music is the blossoming of virtue.’” – The Analects

In ancient China, music was an obsession for Emperor and his imperial court, wishing to secure the dynastic power with the Mandate of Heaven. With each new dynasty, colleges of scholars were employed to find the right tone on which to build the scale for all of the musical instruments of the dynasty. Once the proper beginning note was found, a piece of jade was carved to the proper dimension to vibrate at this tone, becoming a national standard. This process was as important as establishing a uniform weight for the dynasty, although much more important because of its universal implications. Weight was thought to be subjective and confined to the world, but the Chinese believed that the musical tones played on the earth must harmonize with the tones of all the celestial bodies, or else life on earth would become difficult. The fall of a dynasty, outside of an unrighteous Emperor, was attributed to a wrong tone on which the dynasty based its scales. In the interconnected manner in which the Chinese saw the universe, this idea was a simple cause and effect. Perhaps they were wiser than we think.

“Confucius was once learning to play on the Qin (a stringed instrument) from the music master Xiangzi, and did not seem to make much progress for ten days. The music master said to him, ‘You may well learn something else now,’ and Confucius replied, ‘I have already learned the melody, but have not learned the beat and rhythm yet.’ After some time, the music master said, ‘You have now learned the beat and rhythm, you must take the next step.’ ‘I have not learned the expression,’ said Confucius. After a while, the music master again said, ‘Now you have learned the expression, you must take the next step.’ And Confucius replied, ‘I have not yet got an image in my mind of the personality of the composer.’ After some time the music master said, ‘There’s a man behind this music, who is occupied in deep reflection and who sometimes happily lifts his head and looks far away, fixing his mind upon the eternal.’ ‘I’ve got it now’, said Confucius. ‘He is a tall, dark man and his mind seems to be that of an empire builder. Can it be any other person than King Wen himself?’ The music master rose from his seat and bowed twice to Confucius and said, ‘It is the composition of King Wen.’”

With the stoic and highly disciplined nature of Confucianism, playing musical instruments became a method in which a player could express and mold his own emotions, as well as the emotions of the listener. Music had attained a high social level by the time of Confucius, since all noblemen’s children were expected to study this discipline. This music grew simultaneously with Confucianism, and became an art linked with the depth of prose, philosophy, and calligraphy. Centuries of development and discipline eventually produced music that rivals the well-known Chinese martial arts in practice and philosophy. It is still believed that a skilful player of Classical Chinese music is more a philosopher and scholar than a performer. Since the universe is believed to be musical, and China is the center of the universe, the musicians’ urgency for correct and balanced music is even greater than in other geographical areas that shared similar beliefs.

The Gu Qin, a long, lacquered, silk stringed zither, is one of the best instruments from which to trace along the family tree of Asian musical practices and philosophy. To understand how intimately the Confucian ideology is linked to musical discipline is to understand a principle that reoccurs in every society that tries to understand the importance of the natural world. Music and the Gu Qin accompanied the Chinese scholars to Japan, where it was adopted and modified as the discipline of the Koto. Ironically, the same thing happened to the philosophy that the scholars brought with them, as Japan quickly learned to love the thoughts of Confucius.

“Confucius said of the Master of Music in Lu, “You must know a piece of orchestral music is correctly interpreted. It ought to begin in unison, all the instruments tuned together. As you proceed through the piece, it should be played with brilliance and purity, not stopping until the end.”   – Analects 5:16

The Philosophy of Chinese Theory

The philosophically minded Chinese could not use the half steps in the scale (illustrated between the E and the F, and the B and the C, in C major), because of the problems that they caused mathematically, and because they did not seem to conform to the majority pattern. These steps also came into the scale further down the overtone series. Instead, they contented themselves with the five perfect and mathematically explainable tones of the scale, creating the pentatonic form that is still used today. This had major implications, which most westerners are familiar with already; Chinese music had fewer notes in their scale, so there were fewer possibilities in the melody, and hence melodies sound more like each other. This means that musical expression was secondary to balance. With balance being a primary concern of Confucian philosophy, and with music playing such an astronomical role in the function of the universe, the common thought was that one could not take the risk of disturbing interplanetary harmony by playing imbalanced music.

Five is a mystical number for the Chinese. There were five recognized primary colors, five directions (South, West, East, North, and Center), five elements in nature, five classic Chinese books for right conduct, and five tones seemed perfectly logical and balanced. In the Art of War, Sunzi, military strategist under King Molu of Wu around 500BC wrote in regards to limited resources in times of war, “The Musical notes are only five in number: their melodies are so numerous that one can not hear them all.” (The Art of War 5:8) The admiration for music was such that even a military strategist used it to illustrate his points on the innumerable uses of ground as a military asset. Colors and tones would be associated throughout history, and science is just beginning to comprehend the actual relationships that they play. In a very real sense they are related to the function of vibration, and the natural divisions that occur within nature. If a prism were developed for music, the outcome would be a Chinese scale.

Chinese music was traditionally thought to be spiritually cleansing and mentally refreshing. The topics covered by such music were always related to the four seasons, the elements, or imitations of natural sound, such as birds, frogs, and rushing water. An accomplished musician was expected to understand the sister art of philosophy, which also implied skill in writing. It was said, “A musician who dwells in halls and houses, his heart will dwell among trees and rivers.” The cultivation of a balanced mind, body, and spirit were practiced in the Chinese culture through studies in areas such as music. Those who have thought beyond the trends and fads of their day have always agreed with this worldview concerning music, since it is self-evident in the nature of how things work, and how students learn. Auditory learners thrive in a surrounding that provides music for intellectual stimulation. It is also interesting to note that studies within the United States have shown that students who study music are prone to be bright in other academic areas. Is this just a coincidence, based on the fact that smart people play instruments? No, instead the characters of those who play instruments seem to make for a greater performance in all other areas of life, manifesting the inward virtue of diligence and self-control. The Chinese were right in their observations, and the world is still finding this out through modern research.

Summary of the Chinese Philosophy of Music

  • The Doctrine of the Tao – The Opposites of Yin and Yang Balanced to bring Health, Social Order, and Peace
  • The Principle within Tone – The Notes of the Scales Themselves were Thought to be Invoke and Connect the Emotions and the Mental Condition of the Hearer
  • Maintaining the Equilibrium of Five – In order to maintain the perfection, the strict Chinese philosophical system regulate the exclusion of all things unexplained
  • The Meaning of Music – Perfection as an Expression of the Human Desire
  • The Mystic Lifestyle of the Musician – Ascending to the Ultimate Truth through Discipline and Contemplation

The Summary

The Contemporary Attitudes Regarding Music in the East and West

“I don’t know and I don’t care, as long as it makes me feel good!”

– American Saying

The great difference between Eastern and Western music styles occurred relatively late, sixteen hundred years A.D., when the West developed an attitude of “useful imperfection”, using these half-tones to add interest and color, but carefully stepped to and away these scale degrees to maintain balance. The music styles in the West are characterized by this attitude towards these imperfections. In contrast, Chinese music, steadied by its commitment to a Confucian tradition of perfectionism, did not take this same artistic path, but maintained its musical form to reflect its philosophy of perfection and balance. It accepted the responsibility of exerting a positive moral force on the people, and kept this position until the fall of the Qing.

While there are marked differences between Eastern and Western dichotomy, particularly on the West’s focus on the state of man and the East’s focus on the forces of the universe; the similarities between Pathos/Ethos and Yin/Yang are important. These similarities translate between the two worldviews are found in their observation, acquisition, and desire to maintain perfection. Their differences are found in the way they handle and explain the imperfection.  While the West used imperfection to communicate motion, change, and ultimate resolution, Chinese music used repetition of perfect intervals and scale degrees as the connotative marker for a potentially endless series of cycles; thus illuminating the real difference between the two worldviews – the West’s view of time as lineal, culminating in a final judgment in which all imperfections are made right, and the East’s view of time as cyclical, perfect, and utterly without need of resolution.

Modern culture, as a combination of both East and West, is unique in the way in which is attempts to turn music into a consumer item, esteemed more for its flash of popularity than the moral implications of its socially strengthening and tempering affect. Chinese popular music has revolutionized the modern use of music: from its ancient associations as a moral medicine of balance, to a tool to pry open a market driven by “cool” and images of dancing performers. Chinese youth recently have chosen a shallow form of self-expression over the perfection and restraint of the past, and while this is seen as a step into the future, bridging the gap that used to gape between East and West, it has also brought about the sudden peril of one of the most ancient and important of the world’s music. While contemporary China is seemingly eager to follow the pattern of the West, allowing self-expression to become the only prerogative of the musician, a new generation of young people has begun to question this process, to treasure the traditional musical arts of China, and rediscover the power that is locked within its mysteries.

Summary of the Modern Attitude towards Music

  • The Importance of Lifestyle
  • Self-Expression
  • The Enjoyment of Imperfection
  • Music as an Accessory and Commodity
  • The Amorality of Music

重现被遗忘的美丽

从西方的视角来欣赏中国传统音乐

在当今世界，随着东西方两种观点的不断交汇，以及这些交流所产生的巨大社会反响，音乐俨然已经成为我们两种文化之间最重要的大使。因为音乐是一种真正意义上的通用语言，所以对于有效的文化交流与理解来说，音乐是至关重要的。它能够帮助我们克服彼此之间的偏见和厌恶，取而代之的是在听音乐的过程中早就存在的美感和欣赏之情。理解音乐在两种文化中的功能、它背后的哲理、它的理论以及它的意义，并把其作为本民族文化之外的一个代表，这已经成为太平洋两岸的音乐家和语言学者跨文化研究中的一个重要领域。

继续回到主题。我想问在座的各位几个问题。你认为中国文化与西方文化之间最大的差异是什么？我们各自的文化的历史和哲学原理有哪些相似之处？尽管这并不是被大众所宣扬之处，但我相信，东西方之间的相似之处要远远大于差异。可能你很容易就能指出两种传统之间的差异，然而我的观点是这两种艺术与文化之间的精华不仅仅在于它们是如何看待理想化或者完美的，而且在于它们是如何看待对不完美的实践和规范化的。

完美与不完美

奥秘开始于泛音列，以及为什么每个音阶有五个全音和两个半音。对这一基本的数学方程没有一个好的解释，但是每一个有思想的文化都必须抓住这个问题并询问为什么会在这样。每种文化业都必须解决这样一个事实，即音乐展现了一种令人难以置信的能力，能够控制人的思维、情绪，能够让听众产生表达的欲望和敬畏之情。文化是如何处理这一点的，是如何维护它们在音乐理论和科学中的哲理的，使得它们形成了现今独特的艺术传统。

拿起一根弦，把它紧紧地系在两个点之间，就做成了最基本的乐器，音乐的数学原理就是从这里产生的。如果把这根弦分成同样长度的两段，如果作用在它们上面的拉力与原来那根弦一样的话，每一段都将在原音的基础上震颤而发出八度音。以此类推，会产生一个八度音接着另一个八度音。对于任何一个给定的音符，它的泛音会在基本音色的基础上提供一个四度音和五度音，它们是很容易辨别的。当这些音符确定之后，再添加另一套弦，它们会在泛音中产生另一系列的音符，这样持续下去，直到你拥有了一个完整的音阶，尽管这个音阶是被无数的八度音所分割的。一旦所有的音符被调到这个音阶上，它们在泛音中听起来高于或低于原来的音符，这样就产生了一个问题，这个问题的名字来自希腊哲学家毕达哥拉斯。这个问题就是，随着八音度的增加，整个音阶将无法完美地配合工作，就会跑调。这一效应被称作毕达哥拉斯昏迷。因此，音阶必须自我调整，而不是按照数学原理来调音。所有的音乐在这个过程中都有它们各自的基础。

古代的音乐理论意识到，半音“Fa”和“Ti”（第四个和第五个音级）打乱了整个音阶中的音部的自然而普遍的模式。我们发现，所有最古老的音乐都是通过删掉这些音级来解决这个问题的，这样就产生了五声原理和五声音阶（五音符）。现存的音乐中，如中国、埃及和爱尔兰的音乐，都是依赖于五声音阶，都依赖于音的和谐。

西方观点

情感准则

“人类的灵魂中肯定是没有激情的，但是却能在音乐中找到源泉。”

乔治·里罗（1693—1739）

人们普遍认为，一首用来产生并保持一种单一情绪的曲子，就是教化，这一信念在在巴洛克时期得到了广泛的认可。这种教化还有另外一个层面，它基于详尽的体系，这这些体系里，决定作曲的心情要基于它同文学或者诗歌作品之间的结合。这种情感原则（按照精神特质或同情心，快乐、愤怒、爱情、痛恨、兴奋——都被归为“情感”范畴）是在希腊的黄金时代产生的一种思想，在文艺复兴时期又重新回归。

文艺复兴时期和巴洛克时期的音乐具有反复重复的特性，主要就是因为这一准则，认为一种情感在一首曲子的第一段旋律优美的主题中展示，之后要反复重现来保持这种独特的情绪。这种做法保证了一种情绪能够贯穿整首曲子，保证了音乐成为这一情绪的客观见证者，而不是在一首曲子中混合了多种不同的情感。通过这一理念，相同的思想不断重复成了一种标准模式，但可以为了兴趣和调制的发展稍微有点变化，以便给予曲子额外的质感和味道。

尽管是一种很简单的教化，但这一理念给予了巴洛克时期的音乐太多的特征形式，以至于要是没有它，一个相隔很远而又非常近似的音就不会产生了。巴洛克时期的音乐和古典音乐之间的一个重要区别就是前者严格遵循这一原则，而后者只是保留了这一原则，而实际上对坚持“一种情绪贯穿始终”的理念并没有给予太多考虑。浪漫主义时期彻底打破了这一概念，创作的音乐都融合了多种情感，他们认为这样能更加有效地传递人类的状况。

音乐注重描述，而不是表达。这一原则取决于“单纯的情感”是通过音乐来刻画的而不是作曲的人的情绪状态这一事实。因此，音乐中展现的情绪在不同的人身上可能会有不同的表现，而不是一种预先包装好的情感状态。虽然听起来有些抽象，区别在于目的意图。这一时代的作曲家关注的是传递现实的原则，而不是传递他们自己对现实的看法。尽管这听起来很简单，但现在的音乐理念与那时候相比，其差异非常令人吃惊。今天，音乐的主要目的是表达个体的思想，这使得客观描绘一种情绪变得不可能。巴洛克时期的作曲家运用情感原则的方式是通过在他们的音乐中仔细平衡各比例来实现的。他们还通过调性、调式、不和谐以及节奏的程式成功创造出期望的效果。尽管当时并没有太多关于这些原则的文字记载，它们却是这一时期的作曲家经常采用的的模式。他们是通过做学徒或者口口相传来学习的，这成了从整体上理解他们的音乐的基础。

一种可辨别的跳动产生了生命，而这在以前的音乐中是没有的。既然从字面意思上看，生命是通过跳动来区别的，那么通过在它的音符中产生脉搏就给予了音乐一种人工的生命形式，这一现象比以往任何时候都更加突出。纵观各个时期，你们可以看到节奏的发展与扩展。一开始的时候，音乐只注重音调，没有任何脉搏跳动的感觉。因为脉搏在人体上非常典型，所以每一代人在他们的音乐中不断添加一些更加人性的东西，把音调分成很多脉搏，能模仿人类在不同的环境中身体上的反应。因为情绪和身体状况的关系非常紧密，从模仿身体状况的有节奏的模式中很快就产生了风格，一定的文化也由此而出现了（如舞蹈和柔美的爱情歌曲）。一般情况下，一种节奏会让听众产生一种反应。如果这种反应不适合于一种文化的身份认同感，那么它将会被排除在外，这使得某些节奏无法进入音乐圈，直到本文化的理念变得足够兼容才可以。巴洛克时期的感觉与文艺复兴时期的非常不一样，原因就在于理念变得足够多，允许使用快节奏。

“……但是有一段时间，音乐的确改变了他的本质。内心没有音乐的人，或者不能被甜美的音乐所感动的人，就被认为是叛徒、阴谋家和废物；他的心灵如黑夜般暗淡，他的情感如厄瑞波斯般黑暗。这样的人将不被信任……”（莎士比亚，《威尼斯商人》）

“拥有意想不到的魅力的音乐本身就能够束缚游荡的灵魂，安抚焦虑的心灵。”——《和谐颂》，威廉姆·康格里夫（1670—1729）

“音乐有安抚凶暴心灵、柔化岩石或者使打结的橡树弯折的魅力。”——《悲伤的新娘》，威廉姆·康格里夫（1670—1729）

西方音乐哲学小结

  • 情感准则——按照人的气质特征和同情心，承担起平衡音乐的影响力的责任
  • 揭露原则——音乐能够影响人的性格，是宇宙中自然顺序的见证
  • 音乐的意义——艺术作为一种比较实用的哲学理念，能够诱导、平衡性情和人类关系的特征
  • 向难以达到的完美奋斗——音乐被视为最终的、普遍的、神圣的交流
  • 美学的生活方式——在艺术中为了一种明达的目的而活着

中国的观点

中国对合适的音乐的准则

“孔子说：‘美德是人性强大的根基，而音乐是美德之花。”——《论语》

在古代中国，皇帝和他的宫廷都对音乐着迷，希望能遵从天命抓牢朝廷的权力。每一个新的朝代诞生时，都要雇用大量学者来寻找合适的音调，在此基础上建造本朝代所有的乐器的音阶。一旦找到了一个合适的开篇音符，一片翠玉就会被刻成合适的大小来按这个音颤动，成为全国的标准。这一过程和朝代建立统一的服装一样重要，尽管由于其广泛的含义，实际上要重要的多。重量被认为是主观的，束缚于尘世的，但中国人认为，世界上演奏的音乐必须与所有天体的音调保持一致，否则的话，地球上的生命将会变得困难。一个朝代的衰落，除了归咎于昏庸的皇帝之外，还源于这个朝代创建其音阶时所基于的错误音调。从中国人看待宇宙的内在联系来看，这种思想就是一种简单的因果关系。或许他们比我们所想的要明智。

“孔子曾经跟音乐大师襄子学琴，10天过去了，他似乎没有取得多大进展。襄子就对他说：‘你现在可以学新的东西了。’孔子答道：‘我已经熟悉曲子了，但还没有掌握演奏的技巧。’过了一段时间，襄子说：‘你已经熟悉演奏的技巧了，可以继续往下学了。’孔子说道：‘我还没有领会其中的志趣。’过了一段时间，襄子又说：‘已经熟悉其中的志趣了，可以继续往下学了。’孔子说：‘我还不知道乐曲的作者啊。’过了一段时间，孔子神情俨然，仿佛进到新的境界：时而庄重穆然，若有所思，时而怡然高望，志意深渊，终于，他说道：‘我知道他了。那人皮肤黝黑，体形颀长，眼睛深邃远望，如同统治着四方诸侯，不是周文王还能是谁呢？’襄子离开座位连行两次拜礼道：‘我的老师说这是《文王操》。’“

儒家学说恬淡寡欲，纪律遵守严格，弹乐器成了演奏者抒发自己情感的一种方法，同时也能抒发听者的情感。到了孔子所在的时代，音乐获得了极高的社会地位，因为所有达官贵人的孩子都被要求学习这一学科。这时期的音乐和儒教一同发展，成了与散文、哲学和书法相关联的一种艺术。几个世纪的发展与规范最终产生了与广为人知的中国武术相匹敌的音乐。仍然有人相信，一个中国古典音乐的娴熟演奏者，与其说他是一名表演者，不如说他是一位哲学家和学者。既然整个宇宙被认为是富有音乐的，而中国是宇宙的中心，因此中国的音乐家们渴望合适而和谐的音乐的急切心情要大于其他地方，尽管这些地方也有类似的信仰。

古琴是最好的乐器之一，从它可以追溯亚洲音乐实践的家谱和哲学。要理解儒家思想与音乐是如何紧密相连的，就是要理解在每个社会都会重现的一个原则，这些社会都明白自然界的重要性。音乐和古琴伴着中国学者来到了日本，在这里它被采纳和修改，变成了日本的十三弦筝。极具讽刺意味的是，同样的事情发生在中国学者带去的哲学身上，因为日本很快就喜欢上了孔子的思想。

“孔子对鲁国的音乐大师说：‘你必须知道，一曲管弦乐被正确地诠释。开篇必须一致，所有的乐器一起调音。随着音乐的展开，应该伴有光彩和纯净，中间不停，一直到结束。’”——《论语》

中国理论的哲学

极具哲学思想的中国人不能用音阶中的半音（在C大调中表示为E和F之间，B和C之间），因为它们所产生的数学问题，还因为它们似乎与大多数模式不一致。这些音级也存在于泛音部分的音阶中。然而，它们用五个完美的、数学上能解释得通的音调来满足了自己，创制出了今天仍在使用的五声音阶。这一发明的重大意义大多数西方人已经非常熟悉了。中国音乐的音阶中有较少的音符，所以曲调的种类也比较少，因而旋律听起来非常相似。这意味着音乐表达要次于平衡。既然平衡一直是儒家哲学重点关注的，弹奏音乐在宇宙的功能中又扮演着天体学的角色，一般人认为，不能冒险弹奏不平衡的音乐来扰乱了星际间的和谐。

对中国人来说，5是一个神秘的数字。有5种基本色，5个方向（南、北、东、西、中），自然界的5种元素，5本关于好的行为的古典中国书籍，因而5个音调似乎非常符合逻辑，非常平衡。孙子是大约公元前500年的吴国的军事家，他在《孙子兵法》中关于战争年代有限的资源写道：“音符只有5个，而它们产生的曲调却如此之多，以至于一个人根本无法听到全部。”（《孙子兵法5：8》）对音乐的赞赏竟到了这种程度，以至于一个军事家都用它来阐释自己对于作为军队资产的土地的广泛应用方面的观点。在历史上，颜色和音调是有关联的，而科学正开始理解它们所产生的实际关系。从非常实际的观点来看，它们与振动的功能以及在自然界中发生的自然分工有关。如果棱镜是为了音乐而产生的话，那结果极有可能是一个中国的音阶。

传统认为，中国音乐能净化心灵，使人精神焕发。这样的音乐所涵盖的主题总是与四季、五行或者模仿自然界的声音（如鸟、青蛙和奔流的河水）有关。一位成功的音乐家应该能够理解哲学，它在写作中也暗含技巧。据说，“一个待在大厅里和房子里的音乐家，他的心却住在树木、河流之间。”通过学习像音乐这样的领域来培养心灵、身体和精神的和谐在中国文化中有实际例子。那些思维超越自己所处时代的人，总是认可这种与音乐相关的世界观，因为这在事物如何运转和学生如何学习的本质中是不言而喻的。听觉学习者在有音乐的环境中会学得更快。还有一点有意思而值得注意的是，在美国的研究表明，学习音乐的学生容易学好其他课程。这仅仅是巧合吗，基于聪明的人才弹乐器这一事实？当然不是，而是那些弹奏乐器的人的性格似乎适合于在生活中的其他领域取得较大的成就，展示了勤奋和自我控制的内在美德。中国人是对的，世界仍然在通过现代化的研究来发现这一结论。

中国音乐哲学小结

  • 道教教义——阴阳平衡带来健康、社会秩序和和平
  • 音调内的原则——音阶本身的音符被认为具有激发性，能把听众的情绪和心理状态连接起来
  • l保持5的平衡——为了维持完美，严格的中国哲学体系把所有无法解释的东西都排除在外
  • 音乐的意义——完美作为人类欲望的表达
  • 音乐家的神秘生活方式——通过训练和沉思到达终极真理

总结

东西方当今对音乐的态度

“我不知道它是什么音乐，我也不在乎，只要它能让我感觉好就行！”——当代美国谚语

东西方音乐风格的巨大差异相对来说很晚才出现，在公元后1600年，当时西方发展了一种“有用的不完美”的态度，使用这些半音来增加兴趣和色彩。西方的音乐风格按照这种不完美的态度来划分。与之相反，中国音乐，忠实于儒家完美主义的传统，没有走同样的艺术之路，而是保持了用音乐形式来反映其完美和和谐的哲学。它接受了对人们施加积极的道德教化的责任，这一定位一直保持到清朝灭亡。

尽管东西方的二分法之间有着显著的差别，尤其是西方更注重人的状态，而东方更注重宇宙的力量；精神特质/同情和阴/阳之间的相似点很重要。这些相似性在东西方两种世界观之间转化，可在他们的观察、习得和保持完美的欲望中发现。它们的差别在于它们处理和解释不完美的方式。西方用不完美来传递动态、变化和最终的决心，而中国音乐用重复完美的音程和音级作为一系列潜在的无休止的圈子的内在标志；因此，两种世界观之间的真正差异应解释为：西方认为时间是线形的，判定所有的不完美都是合理的，而东方认为时间是循环的、完美的，完全不需要解决方案。

当今文化，作为东西方的结合，在其试图把音乐转化为一种消费品的方式上是独一无二的，更多的被认为是一种一闪而过的流行，而不是其强化和调和功效的道德暗示。中国流行音乐革命化了当今对音乐的使用：从其古代作为与和谐的道德之间的关联，到打开一个由“酷”和舞者形象所驱动的市场的工具。近来，中国的年轻人选择了一种很肤浅的自我表达方式，尽管这被看做走向未来的一步，弥补了过去存在于东西方之间的鸿沟，但这也给最古老、最重要的世界音乐带来了突然的危险。虽然当代中国似乎急于模仿西方的模式，允许自我表达成为音乐家的唯一特权，而新一代的年轻人已经开始质疑这一过程，开始珍视中国的传统音乐艺术，重新发现深锁在神秘中的力量。

当今对音乐的态度小结

  • 生活方式的重要性
  • 自我表达
  • 享受不完美
  • 音乐作为装饰和商品
  • 音乐的超道德